Federalism

Federalism ek system of government hai jismein power ko ek central authority aur country ki various constituent units ke beech divide kiya jaata hai.

• Levels of Government: Usually, ek federation mein do levels of government hote hain:
• National Government: Poore country ke liye, common national interest ke subjects ko handle karti hai.
• State/Provincial Governments: Day-to-day administration aur state-specific matters ko dekhti hain.
• Independent Powers: Dono levels of government ek doosre se independent hokar apni powers enjoy karte hain.

Unitary System se Contrast

• Unitary System:
• Ya toh sirf ek level of government hota hai.
• Ya phir sub-units central government ke subordinate hote hain.
• Central government provincial ya local government ko orders pass kar sakti hai.
• Example: Sri Lanka (practical purposes ke liye).
• Federal System:
• Central government state government ko kuch karne ka order nahi de sakti.
• State government ki apni powers hoti hain, jiske liye woh central government ko answerable nahi hoti.
• Dono governments directly logon ko answerable hoti hain.
• Example: Belgium (1993 ke baad), India.

Key Features of Federalism

1. Two or More Tiers: Government ke do ya do se zyada levels (ya tiers) hote hain.
2. Same Citizens, Different Jurisdictions: Different tiers of government same citizens ko govern karte hain, but har tier ka apna jurisdiction hota hai specific matters mein (legislation, taxation, administration).
3. Constitutional Guarantee: Har tier of government ka existence aur authority constitutionally guaranteed hota hai. Unke jurisdictions constitution mein clearly specified hote hain.
4. Constitutional Amendments: Constitution ke fundamental provisions ko ek level of government unilaterally change nahi kar sakti. Aise changes ke liye dono levels of government ki consent zaroori hoti hai.
5. Judicial Interpretation: Courts ke paas constitution aur different levels of government ki powers ko interpret karne ki power hoti hai. Highest court umpire ka role play karti hai agar powers ke exercise mein disputes hote hain.
6. Financial Autonomy: Har level of government ke liye sources of revenue clearly specified hote hain, taaki unki financial autonomy ensure ho sake.
7. Dual Objectives: Federal system ke do main objectives hote hain:

• Country ki unity ko safeguard aur promote karna.
• Regional diversity ko accommodate karna.

• Crucial Aspects: Federalism ki practice ke liye do cheezein bahut important hain:
• Different levels par governments ko power-sharing ke rules par agree karna chahiye.
• Unhein ek doosre par trust karna chahiye ki woh agreement ko follow karenge.

• Ideal Federal System: Mutual trust aur agreement to live together, dono aspects hote hain.

Federations do main routes se form hoti hain, aur in routes ke basis par central aur state governments ke beech power ka balance decide hota hai.

1. Coming Together Federations

• Formation: Ismein independent States apni marzi se ek saath aate hain aur ek bigger unit banate hain.
• Objective: Sovereignty ko pool karke aur apni identity maintain karte hue, apni security ko increase karna.
• Power Distribution: Is type ki federations mein, sabhi constituent States ke paas usually equal power hoti hai aur woh federal government ke comparison mein strong hote hain.
• Examples: USA, Switzerland, Australia.

2. Holding Together Federations

• Formation: Ismein ek large country apni power ko divide karti hai constituent States aur national government ke beech.
• Power Distribution: Is category mein, Central Government States ke comparison mein zyada powerful hoti hai.
• Unequal Powers: Aksar, federation ki different constituent units ke paas unequal powers hoti hain. Kuch units ko special powers bhi di jaati hain.
• Examples: India, Spain, Belgium.

• Key Difference: Coming Together mein states apni marzi se aate hain aur strong hote hain, jabki Holding Together mein ek bada desh power divide karta hai aur center zyada strong hota hai.

India ek Union of States hai, aur although constitution mein 'federation' word use nahi kiya gaya, Indian Union federalism ke principles par based hai. India ki federal structure ko samajhne ke liye, legislative powers ka distribution important hai.

• Two-tier system: Constitution ne originally Union Government (Central Government) aur State Governments ka two-tier system provide kiya tha.
• Third-tier: Baad mein, Panchayats aur Municipalities ke roop mein ek third-tier bhi add kiya gaya.
• Separate Jurisdiction: Har tier ki apni separate jurisdiction hoti hai.

Three-fold Distribution of Legislative Powers

Indian Constitution ne Union Government aur State Governments ke beech legislative powers ko three lists mein divide kiya hai:

1. Union List:

• Subjects: National importance ke subjects, jaise defence, foreign affairs, banking, communications, currency.
• Reason: In matters par poore country mein uniform policy ki zaroorat hoti hai.
• Law-making Power: Sirf Union Government hi Union List mein mentioned subjects par laws bana sakti hai.

1. State List:

• Subjects: State aur local importance ke subjects, jaise police, trade, commerce, agriculture, irrigation.
• Law-making Power: Sirf State Governments hi State List mein mentioned subjects par laws bana sakti hai.

1. Concurrent List:

• Subjects: Common interest ke subjects jo Union Government aur State Governments dono ke liye important hain, jaise education, forest, trade unions, marriage, adoption, succession.
• Law-making Power: Dono Union aur State Governments in subjects par laws bana sakti hain.
• Conflict Resolution: Agar dono ke laws mein conflict hota hai, toh Union Government ka banaya hua law prevail karega.

Residuary Subjects

• Definition: Woh subjects jo in teeno lists mein se kisi mein bhi nahi aate, ya aise subjects jo constitution banne ke baad aaye (jaise computer software).
• Law-making Power: Union Government ke paas in 'residuary' subjects par laws banane ki power hai.

• Importance: Yeh three-fold distribution India mein power-sharing ka fundamental aspect hai aur federal structure ko define karta hai.

India ek 'holding together' federation hai, jahan sabhi constituent units ko equal powers nahi di jaati. Ismein kuch States ko special status milta hai aur kuch areas Union Territories kehlati hain.

Special Status States

• Unequal Powers: Indian Union ke sabhi States ke paas identical powers nahi hoti hain.
• Article 371: Kuch States, jaise Assam, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh, aur Mizoram ko Article 371 ke under special powers mili hain.
• Reasons: Yeh special powers unki peculiar social aur historical circumstances ki wajah se di gayi hain.
• Benefits: In powers mein indigenous people ke land rights, culture ka protection, aur government services mein preferential employment shamil hain.
• Restriction: Jo Indians in States ke permanent residents nahi hain, woh yahan land ya house nahi khareed sakte.

Union Territories

• Definition: Kuch units hain jo bahut chhote hain independent State banne ke liye, aur existing States ke saath merge bhi nahi ho sakte.
• Examples: Chandigarh, Lakshadweep, Delhi (capital city).
• Powers: In territories ke paas State ki powers nahi hoti hain.
• Administration: Central Government ke paas in areas ko run karne ke liye special powers hoti hain.

Judicial Role in Federalism

• Constitutional Provisions: Union aur State Governments ke beech power-sharing ka arrangement Constitution ka basic structure hai.
• Amendment Process: Is arrangement ko change karna aasan nahi hai.
• Parliament akeli ismein change nahi kar sakti.
• Kisi bhi change ko pehle dono Houses of Parliament mein two-thirds majority se pass hona zaroori hai.
• Phir use total States ke at least half ki legislatures se ratify karwana hota hai.
• Overseeing Implementation: Judiciary, especially High Courts aur Supreme Court, constitutional provisions aur procedures ke implementation ko oversee karti hai.
• Dispute Resolution: Agar powers ke division ko lekar koi dispute hota hai, toh High Courts aur Supreme Court decision leti hain.
• Financial Resources: Union aur State Governments ke paas taxes levy karke resources raise karne ki power hoti hai, taaki woh apni assigned responsibilities ko carry out kar saken.

• Conclusion: Judiciary ka role India ke federal structure ko maintain karne aur power-sharing arrangements ko protect karne mein bahut crucial hai.

India mein federalism ki success sirf constitutional provisions par depend nahi karti, balki democratic politics ke nature par bhi. Linguistic States ka creation aur language policy iske do main examples hain.

Linguistic States

• First Major Test: Linguistic States ka creation Indian democracy ke liye pehla aur major test tha.
• Changes Post-1947: 1947 ke baad, India ke political map mein bahut changes aaye. Kai old States gayab ho gaye aur new States bane, areas, boundaries aur names change hue.
• Basis of Creation:
• Mainly, same language bolne wale logon ko ek State mein rakhne ke liye States banaye gaye.
• Kuch States culture, ethnicity ya geography ke basis par bhi bane, jaise Nagaland, Uttarakhand, Jharkhand.
• Initial Fears: Kuch national leaders ko darr tha ki linguistic States se country ka disintegration ho sakta hai, isliye Central Government ne shuru mein resist kiya.
• Positive Outcome: Experience ne dikhaya ki linguistic States ne actually country ko zyada united banaya hai aur administration ko easier kiya hai.

Language Policy

• Second Test: India ki language policy federalism ke liye doosra test thi.
• National Language Status: Indian Constitution ne kisi bhi ek language ko national language ka status nahi diya.
• Official Language: Hindi ko official language identify kiya gaya, lekin yeh sirf 40% Indians ki mother tongue hai.
• Safeguards for Other Languages:
• Hindi ke alawa, 21 other languages ko Constitution ne Scheduled Languages recognise kiya (Eighth Schedule).
• Central Government positions ke exams mein candidates in mein se kisi bhi language mein exam de sakte hain.
• States ki apni official languages hoti hain, aur zyadatar government work State ki official language mein hota hai.
• English Continuation: Constitution ke according, English ka official purposes ke liye use 1965 mein band hona tha. Lekin non-Hindi speaking States ki demand par, English ko Hindi ke saath official purposes ke liye continue kiya gaya.
• Promotion of Hindi: Government of India ki official policy Hindi ko promote karna hai. Lekin iska matlab yeh nahi ki Central Government States par Hindi impose kar sakti hai jahan log doosri language bolte hain.
• Flexibility: Indian political leaders ki flexibility ne India ko Sri Lanka jaisi situation se bachaya, jahan language ke issue par conflict hua tha.

• Linguistic Diversity: India duniya ke most diverse countries mein se ek hai languages ke terms mein. 2011 Census ke according, 1300 se zyada distinct languages record ki gayi, jinhein group karke 121 major languages mein classify kiya gaya. Inmein se 22 Scheduled Languages hain.

Centre-State relations ka restructuring bhi federalism ko practice mein strengthen karne ka ek important tareeka hai. Constitutional arrangements kaise work karte hain, yeh ruling parties aur leaders ke behaviour par depend karta hai.

Early Period (Pre-1990)

• Dominance of One Party: Bahut lambe time tak, Centre aur zyada tar States mein same party rule karti thi.
• Undermining State Autonomy: Iska matlab tha ki State Governments autonomous federal units ki tarah apne rights exercise nahi kar paati thi.
• Misuse of Constitution: Jab State level par ruling party different hoti thi, toh Centre ki ruling party States ki power ko undermine karne ki koshish karti thi. Central Government aksar Constitution ka misuse karke rival parties dwara controlled State Governments ko dismiss kar deti thi.
• Impact: Isse federalism ki spirit weak hoti thi.

Post-1990 Era

• Rise of Regional Parties: 1990 ke baad, regional political parties ka rise hua kai States mein.
• Era of Coalition Governments: Yeh Centre mein coalition governments ka daur shuru hua.
• Kisi bhi single party ko Lok Sabha mein clear majority nahi milti thi.
• Isliye, major national parties ko kai parties ke saath alliance karna padta tha, jismein regional parties bhi shamil hoti thi, Centre mein government banane ke liye.
• New Culture of Power Sharing: Isse power sharing ka ek naya culture develop hua aur State Governments ki autonomy ke liye respect badhi.
• Supreme Court's Role: Supreme Court ke ek major judgement ne Central Government ke liye State Governments ko arbitrarily dismiss karna mushkil bana diya.
• Strengthened Federalism: Is tarah, federal power sharing aaj Constitution ke shuruati saalon ke comparison mein zyada effective hai.

Coalition Government

• Definition: Ek government jo at least do political parties ke ek saath aane se banti hai. Partners usually ek political alliance banate hain aur ek common programme adopt karte hain.

• Significance: Coalition governments ne Centre ko States ki demands ke prati zyada responsive banaya hai aur federal structure ko practical sense mein mazboot kiya hai.

India jaise vast country mein, sirf do tiers of government (Centre aur State) se administration chalana mushkil hai. States khud mein Europe ke kai countries jitne bade hain. Isliye, power ko decentralise karna zaroori hai.

Need for Decentralisation

• Vastness of India: Indian States khud mein bahut bade aur internally diverse hain (e.g., Uttar Pradesh > Russia in population).
• Local Problems: Bahut saari problems aur issues local level par best settle hote hain.
• Local Knowledge: Logon ko apni localities ki problems aur unhein solve karne ke tareekon ka better knowledge hota hai.
• Efficient Management: Local level par money kaise spend karna hai aur cheezon ko kaise efficiently manage karna hai, iske better ideas local logon ke paas hote hain.
• Direct Participation: Local level par log decision making mein directly participate kar sakte hain, jisse democratic participation ki habit develop hoti hai.
• Local Self-Government: Decentralisation democracy ke ek important principle, local self-government, ko realize karne ka best way hai.

Early Attempts at Decentralisation

• Constitutional Recognition: Constitution mein decentralisation ki need ko recognise kiya gaya tha.
• Panchayats & Municipalities: Villages mein Panchayats aur urban areas mein Municipalities set up ki gayi thi.
• Limitations:
• Yeh bodies directly State Governments ke control mein thi.
• Elections regularly nahi hote the.
• Local governments ke paas apni koi powers ya resources nahi the.
• Isliye, effective terms mein bahut kam decentralisation tha.

Major Step: The 1992 Constitutional Amendment

1992 mein ek major step liya gaya jab Constitution ko amend kiya gaya taaki third-tier of democracy ko zyada powerful aur effective banaya ja sake. Key provisions:

• Regular Elections: Local government bodies ke liye regular elections conduct karna constitutionally mandatory ho gaya.
• Reservation of Seats:
• Elected bodies aur executive heads ki positions mein Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, aur Other Backward Classes ke liye seats reserve ki gayi.
• At least one-third of all positions women ke liye reserve ki gayi.
• State Election Commission: Har State mein State Election Commission naam ki ek independent institution create ki gayi, jo Panchayat aur Municipal elections conduct karti hai.
• Power & Revenue Sharing: State Governments ko local government bodies ke saath kuch powers aur revenue share karna mandatory kiya gaya. Sharing ka nature State to State vary karta hai.

• Impact: Is amendment ne local self-government ko India mein real sense mein implement kiya aur democracy ko grass-root level tak deepen kiya.

1992 ke amendment ke baad, India mein local self-government ka structure rural aur urban dono areas mein strong hua. Yeh duniya ka largest experiment in democracy hai.

Rural Local Government (Panchayati Raj)

• Gram Panchayat:
• Har village ya group of villages mein ek Gram Panchayat hoti hai.
• Ismein several ward members (panch) aur ek president (sarpanch) hote hain.
• Yeh log adult population dwara directly elected hote hain.
• Yeh poore village ke liye decision-making body hai.
• Gram Sabha:
• Panchayat Gram Sabha ke overall supervision mein kaam karti hai.
• Village ke sabhi voters iske members hote hain.
• Gram Sabha ko saal mein kam se kam do ya teen baar milna padta hai Gram Panchayat ke annual budget ko approve karne aur uski performance review karne ke liye.
• Panchayat Samiti / Block / Mandal:
• Kuch Gram Panchayats ko group karke Panchayat Samiti (ya Block/Mandal) banaya jaata hai.
• Is body ke members area ke sabhi Panchayat members dwara elected hote hain.
• Zilla Parishad:
• District level par, sabhi Panchayat Samitis ya Mandals milkar Zilla Parishad banate hain.
• Zyadatar members elected hote hain. Lok Sabha MPs, MLAs aur district level ke officials bhi iske members hote hain.
• Zilla Parishad Chairperson iska political head hota hai.

Urban Local Government

• Municipalities: Towns mein Municipalities set up ki jaati hain.
• Municipal Corporations: Bade cities mein Municipal Corporations hoti hain.
• Elected Bodies: Dono Municipalities aur Municipal Corporations elected bodies dwara control ki jaati hain, jismein people's representatives hote hain.
• Political Heads:
• Municipality ka political head Municipal Chairperson hota hai.
• Municipal Corporation ka political head Mayor hota hai.

Challenges to Local Self-Government

• Largest Experiment: India ka yeh local government system duniya ka largest experiment in democracy hai, jismein lagbhag 36 lakh elected representatives hain.
• Deepened Democracy: Isne country mein democracy ko deepen kiya hai aur women ki representation aur voice ko badhaya hai.
• Existing Difficulties:
• Elections regularly hote hain, lekin Gram Sabhas regularly nahi hoti hain.
• Zyadatar State Governments ne significant powers local governments ko transfer nahi ki hain.
• Adequate resources bhi nahi diye gaye hain.
• Ideal of Self-Government: Hum abhi bhi self-government ke ideal ko fully realize karne se kaafi door hain.

• Example (Porto Alegre, Brazil): Porto Alegre mein decentralisation aur participative democracy ka extraordinary experiment kiya gaya hai, jahan citizens directly city ke budget decisions mein participate karte hain. India ke Kerala mein bhi aise experiments hue hain.