The Rise of Nationalism in Europe

Nineteenth century mein, nationalism ek powerful force ban kar ubhra jisne Europe ke political aur mental world mein bade changes laaye. Iska result tha nation-state ka emergence, multinational dynastic empires ki jagah.

Nation-State kya hai?

• Ek aisa state jahan majority citizens aur unke rulers mein common identity aur shared history ka sense develop hota hai.
• Yeh commonness naturally nahi thi, balki struggles, leaders ke actions aur common logon ke efforts se bani thi.

Frédéric Sorrieu ka Vision (1848)

• French artist Frédéric Sorrieu ne four prints ki series banayi, jismein usne 'democratic and social Republics' ke apne dream ko visualize kiya.
• First Print: Europe aur America ke log ek long train mein march kar rahe hain, Statue of Liberty ko homage de rahe hain.
• Statue of Liberty: Torch of Enlightenment aur Charter of the Rights of Man liye hue.
• Foreground: Absolutist institutions ke shattered remains dikhaye gaye hain.
• Nations: Logon ko unke flags aur national costumes se identify kiya gaya hai.
• Leading the procession: US aur Switzerland (jo tab tak nation-states ban chuke the).
• France: Revolutionary tricolour ke saath statue tak pahunch raha hai.
• Germany: Black, red, aur gold flag liye hue (tab tak united nation nahi tha, yeh liberal hopes ko represent karta tha).
• Other nations: Austria, Kingdom of Two Sicilies, Lombardy, Poland, England, Ireland, Hungary, Russia.
• Heavens: Christ, saints, aur angels fraternity among nations ko symbolise karte hain.

Key Concepts:

• Absolutist: Government ya rule system jismein power par koi restraint nahi hota. History mein, yeh centralized, militarized, aur repressive monarchical government ko refer karta hai.
• Utopian: Ek ideal society ka vision jo real mein exist karna unlikely hai.

Ernst Renan: 'What is a Nation?' (1882)

• French philosopher Ernst Renan ne nation ki definition di:
• Nation common language, race, religion, ya territory se nahi banti.
• Yeh long past of endeavours, sacrifice, aur devotion ka culmination hai.
• Essential conditions: Common glories in the past, common will in the present, great deeds together perform kiye hon, aur future mein bhi perform karne ki ichha ho.
• Nation ek large-scale solidarity hai, jiska existence daily plebiscite (direct vote) hai.
• Nations ka existence liberty ki guarantee hai; agar ek hi law aur master hota toh liberty lost ho jaati.

French Revolution (1789) ne nationalism ka pehla clear expression diya. Isse pehle France ek absolute monarch ke under territorial state tha.

French Revolution ke Changes:

• Sovereignty Transfer: Monarchy se French citizens ke body ko sovereignty transfer hui.
• Collective Identity Creation: Revolutionaries ne collective identity banane ke liye measures liye:
• La Patrie (fatherland) aur Le Citoyen (citizen) ke ideas ne united community aur equal rights par emphasize kiya.
• New French Flag: Tricolour ne royal standard ko replace kiya.
• Estates General: National Assembly ban gaya, active citizens dwara elected.
• Symbols: New hymns, oaths, martyrs ko commemorate kiya gaya.
• Centralized Administration: Uniform laws sabhi citizens ke liye.
• Economic Reforms: Internal customs duties abolish kiye gaye, uniform weights aur measures adopt kiye gaye.
• Language: Regional dialects ko discourage kiya gaya, French (Paris mein boli jaane wali) common language bani.
• Mission of French Nation: Europe ke logon ko despotism se liberate karna, aur unhe nation banane mein help karna.

French Armies aur Nationalism:

• Revolutionary wars ke outbreak ke saath, French armies ne nationalism ka idea Europe mein spread kiya.
• Jacobin clubs students aur educated middle classes ne set up kiye, jinhone French armies ke liye raasta banaya (Holland, Belgium, Switzerland, Italy).

Napoleonic Code (Civil Code of 1804):

• Napoleon ne France mein democracy ko destroy kiya, but administrative field mein revolutionary principles incorporate kiye for rationality aur efficiency.
• Key Features:
• Birth par based saare privileges abolish kiye.
• Law ke saamne equality establish ki.
• Right to property secure kiya.
• Feudal system abolish kiya, peasants ko serfdom aur manorial dues se free kiya.
• Towns mein guild restrictions remove kiye.
• Transport aur communication systems improve kiye.
• Impact: Peasants, artisans, workers, aur businessmen ko freedom mili. Uniform laws, standardized weights/measures, aur common national currency ne goods aur capital ke movement ko facilitate kiya.

Local Populations ka Reaction:

• Initially, French armies ko harbingers of liberty mana gaya (Holland, Switzerland, Brussels, Mainz, Milan, Warsaw).
• But soon, enthusiasm hostility mein badal gaya kyunki new administrative arrangements political freedom ke saath nahi the.
• Negative Impacts: Increased taxation, censorship, forced conscription ne administrative changes ke advantages ko outweigh kar diya.

Mid-eighteenth century Europe mein nation-states nahi the. Germany, Italy, Switzerland kingdoms, duchies, aur cantons mein divided the. Eastern aur Central Europe mein autocratic monarchies thi jahan diverse log rehte the, jinmein common identity ya culture ka sense nahi tha.

Habsburg Empire:

• Austria-Hungary par rule karta tha, many different regions aur peoples ka patchwork.
• Regions: Tyrol, Austria, Sudetenland (Alpine regions), Bohemia (German-speaking aristocracy).
• Languages: Lombardy aur Venetia (Italian-speaking), Hungary (Magyar aur other dialects), Galicia (Polish-speaking aristocracy).
• Peasant Peoples: Bohemians, Slovaks, Slovenes, Croats, Roumans.
• Unity: Sirf common allegiance to the emperor hi in diverse groups ko jode rakhta tha.

Social Structure of Europe:

• Aristocracy: Dominant class, landed, countryside mein estates aur town-houses. French bolte the diplomacy aur high society mein. Marriages se connected. Numerically small group.
• Peasantry: Majority population. West mein tenants aur small owners, East aur Central Europe mein serfs dwara cultivate kiye jaane wale vast estates.
• New Middle Class: Industrial production aur trade ke growth se towns mein commercial classes ka emergence hua.
• Industrialization England mein late 18th century mein shuru hui, France aur German states mein 19th century mein.
• New social groups: Working-class population, industrialists, businessmen, professionals.
• Educated, liberal middle classes mein national unity ke ideas popular hue, especially after abolition of aristocratic privileges.

What did Liberal Nationalism Stand for?

• Liberalism: Latin root 'liber' (free) se derive hua.
• New Middle Classes ke liye: Individual freedom aur law ke saamne equality.
• Political Sphere:
• Government by consent.
• Autocracy aur clerical privileges ka end.
• Constitution aur representative government through parliament.
• Private property ki inviolability.
• Suffrage: Universal suffrage nahi tha. Revolutionary France mein bhi property-owning men ko hi vote ka right tha. Women aur non-propertied men excluded the. Napoleonic Code ne limited suffrage rakha aur women ko minor status diya.
• Economic Sphere:
• Markets ki freedom.
• State-imposed restrictions on goods aur capital ke movement ka abolition.
• Example: German-speaking regions: Napoleon ne 39 states ka confederation banaya tha. Har state ki apni currency, weights aur measures the. Hamburg se Nuremberg tak travel karne wale merchant ko 11 customs barriers par 5% duty deni padti thi. Different regions mein 'elle' (cloth measure) ki length different thi.
• Zollverein (Customs Union): 1834 mein Prussia ki initiative par bana, most German states ne join kiya.
• Tariff barriers abolish kiye.
• Currencies ko 30 se 2 tak reduce kiya.
• Railways ke network ne mobility badhayi.
• Economic nationalism ne wider nationalist sentiments ko strengthen kiya.

Napoleon ki defeat (1815) ke baad, European governments conservatism ki spirit se driven the. Conservatives ne traditional institutions (monarchy, Church, social hierarchies, property, family) ko preserve karne par zor diya.

A New Conservatism after 1815:

• Conservatives ne pre-revolutionary society mein return nahi chaha, balki realize kiya ki modernization monarchy ko strengthen kar sakti hai.
• Modern army, efficient bureaucracy, dynamic economy, feudalism aur serfdom ka abolition autocratic monarchies ko strong bana sakte the.

Treaty of Vienna (1815):

• European powers (Britain, Russia, Prussia, Austria) ne Napoleon ko harane ke baad Vienna mein settlement ke liye meet kiya.
• Host: Austrian Chancellor Duke Metternich.
• Objective: Napoleonic wars ke changes ko undo karna.
• Key Outcomes:
• Bourbon dynasty ko power mein restore kiya gaya.
• France ne Napoleon ke under annex kiye territories lose kiye.
• France ki boundaries par states set up kiye gaye to prevent future expansion (e.g., Kingdom of Netherlands with Belgium, Genoa added to Piedmont).
• Prussia ko western frontiers par new territories mile, Austria ko northern Italy ka control.
• German confederation of 39 states ko untouched chhod diya gaya.
• Russia ko Poland ka part, Prussia ko Saxony ka portion mila.
• Main intention: Monarchies ko restore karna aur Europe mein new conservative order create karna.

Conservative Regimes (1815 ke baad):

• Autocratic the, criticism aur dissent tolerate nahi karte the.
• Censorship laws impose kiye to control newspapers, books, plays, songs jo liberty aur freedom ke ideas ko reflect karte the.
• French Revolution ki memory ne liberals ko inspire kiya, jinhone freedom of the press ki demand ki.

The Revolutionaries:

• 1815 ke baad repression ke fear se liberal-nationalists underground chale gaye.
• Secret Societies: Revolutionaries ko train karne aur ideas spread karne ke liye banayi gayi.
• Revolutionary ka matlab: Vienna Congress ke baad established monarchical forms ka oppose karna, liberty aur freedom ke liye fight karna, aur nation-states ka creation.
• Giuseppe Mazzini (Italian Revolutionary):
• Born in Genoa (1805), Carbonari secret society ka member.
• 1831 mein Liguria mein revolution attempt karne ke liye exile kiya gaya.
• Founded: Young Italy (Marseilles) aur Young Europe (Berne).
• Belief: God ne nations ko mankind ki natural units banaya hai. Italy ko unified republic banna chahiye.
• Metternich ne use 'our social order ka most dangerous enemy' kaha.

The Age of Revolutions: 1830-1848:

• Liberalism aur nationalism revolution se associate ho gaye (Italian/German states, Ottoman Empire, Ireland, Poland).
• Leaders: Educated middle-class elite (professors, teachers, clerks, commercial middle classes).
• July Revolution (France, 1830):
• Bourbon kings ko liberal revolutionaries ne overthrow kiya.
• Constitutional monarchy Louis Philippe ke head par install ki.
• Metternich ka famous quote: "When France sneezes, the rest of Europe catches cold."
• Impact on Belgium: July Revolution ne Brussels mein uprising spark kiya, jisse Belgium United Kingdom of the Netherlands se alag ho gaya.
• Greek War of Independence (1821):
• Greece 15th century se Ottoman Empire ka part tha.
• Revolutionary nationalism ne independence struggle spark kiya.
• Support mila Greeks living in exile aur West Europeans se (ancient Greek culture ke liye sympathies).
• Poets aur artists ne Greece ko 'cradle of European civilisation' kaha, public opinion mobilize kiya.
• Lord Byron ne funds organize kiye aur war mein fight kiya, 1824 mein died.
• Treaty of Constantinople (1832) ne Greece ko independent nation recognize kiya.

The Romantic Imagination and National Feeling:

• Culture ne nation ka idea create karne mein important role play kiya (art, poetry, stories, music).
• Romanticism: Cultural movement jo particular form of nationalist sentiment develop karna chahta tha.
• Reason aur science ki glorification ko criticize kiya.
• Emotions, intuition, mystical feelings par focus kiya.
• Shared collective heritage, common cultural past ko nation ka basis banaya.
• Johann Gottfried Herder (German Philosopher):
• True German culture 'das volk' (common people) mein discover ki jaani chahiye.
• Volksgeist (true spirit of the nation) folk songs, folk poetry, folk dances se popularize kiya gaya.
• Folk culture ko collect aur record karna nation-building ke liye essential tha.
• Grimm Brothers (Jacob aur Wilhelm Grimm):
• German city of Hanau mein born, law studies ki, but old folktales collect karne mein interest develop kiya.
• Villages mein travel karke fairy tales collect kiye, 1812 mein first collection publish ki.
• Liberal politics mein active the, freedom of press ke movement mein.
• 33-volume German language dictionary publish ki.
• French domination ko German culture ke liye threat mana, folktales ko pure aur authentic German spirit ka expression mana.
• Unka project French domination oppose karne aur German national identity create karne ka part tha.
• Language aur Folklore ka Role:
• Illiterate audiences tak nationalist message pahunchane ke liye vernacular language aur local folklore collection important tha.
• Poland Example: Russia, Prussia, Austria dwara partition hone ke baad bhi, national feelings music aur language se alive rakhe gaye.
• Karol Kurpinski ne operas aur music se national struggle celebrate kiya, polonaise aur mazurka ko nationalist symbols banaya.
• Russian occupation ke baad Polish language schools se remove ki gayi, Russian impose ki gayi.
• 1831 mein Russian rule ke against armed rebellion crushed ho gaya.
• Clergy ne language ko national resistance ka weapon banaya. Polish Church gatherings aur religious instruction ke liye use ki gayi.
• Polish ka use Russian dominance ke against struggle ka symbol ban gaya.

Hunger, Hardship and Popular Revolt (1830s-1848):

• Economic Hardship: 1830s mein Europe mein population increase, job seekers zyada, employment kam.
• Migration: Rural areas se cities mein migration, overcrowded slums.
• Competition: Small producers ko England se cheap machine-made goods se stiff competition mila (industrialization wahan zyada advanced thi).
• Feudal Dues: Aristocracy ke power wale regions mein peasants feudal dues aur obligations ke under struggle kar rahe the.
• 1848 Revolutions:
• Food shortages aur widespread unemployment ne Paris mein logon ko roads par laaya.
• Barricades erect kiye gaye, Louis Philippe ko flee karna pada.
• National Assembly ne Republic proclaim ki, universal male suffrage (21+ years) granted, right to work guarantee kiya, national workshops set up kiye.
• Silesian Weavers' Uprising (1845):
• Weavers ne contractors ke against revolt kiya jinhone payments drastically reduce kar diye the.
• Contractor ke mansion par march kiya, higher wages demand kiye.
• Contractor ke house ko smash kiya, storehouse ko plunder kiya.
• Army ko bulaya gaya, eleven weavers shot dead.

1848: The Revolution of the Liberals:

• Poor, unemployed, starving peasants aur workers ke revolts ke parallel, educated middle classes ki revolution bhi chal rahi thi.
• France (Feb 1848): Monarch ka abdication, universal male suffrage par based republic proclaim ki gayi.
• Other parts of Europe: (Germany, Italy, Poland, Austro-Hungarian Empire) jahan independent nation-states nahi the, liberal middle classes ne constitutionalism ko national unification se combine kiya.
• Demands: Nation-state on parliamentary principles (constitution, freedom of press, freedom of association).
• Frankfurt Parliament (German regions):
• Middle-class professionals, businessmen, prosperous artisans ne political associations banayi.
• Frankfurt mein meet kiya, all-German National Assembly ke liye vote kiya.
• 18 May 1848 ko 831 elected representatives St Paul Church mein convene hue.
• German nation ke liye constitution draft kiya, monarchy subject to parliament.
• Prussia ke King Friedrich Wilhelm IV ne crown reject kiya, aur elected assembly ko oppose kiya.
• Aristocracy aur military ka opposition strong hua, parliament ka social basis erode hua.
• Parliament middle classes dwara dominated tha, jinhone workers aur artisans ki demands ko resist kiya, jisse unka support loss hua.
• Troops bulaye gaye, assembly disband ho gayi.
• Women's Rights: Liberal movement mein controversial issue tha.
• Women ne political associations banayi, newspapers founded, political meetings aur demonstrations mein participate kiya.
• Phir bhi, suffrage rights denied the. Frankfurt parliament mein women ko sirf observers ke roop mein visitors' gallery mein allow kiya gaya.
• Post-1848 Changes: Conservative forces ne liberal movements ko suppress kiya, but old order restore nahi kar paaye.
• Monarchs ne realize kiya ki revolutions aur repression ke cycles ko concessions dekar hi end kiya ja sakta hai.
• Central aur Eastern Europe ki autocratic monarchies ne changes introduce kiye jo Western Europe mein pehle ho chuke the.
• Serfdom aur bonded labour abolish kiye gaye (Habsburg dominions aur Russia mein).
• Habsburg rulers ne Hungarians ko 1867 mein zyada autonomy di.

1848 ke baad, Europe mein nationalism democracy aur revolution se alag ho gaya. Nationalist sentiments ko conservatives ne state power promote karne aur political domination achieve karne ke liye use kiya. Germany aur Italy ke unification process mein yeh dikhta hai.

Germany – Can the Army be the Architect of a Nation?

• Background: 1848 mein middle-class Germans ne elected parliament dwara German confederation ko nation-state mein unite karne ki koshish ki, but monarchy aur military ne use repress kar diya.
• Prussia ki Leadership: Iske baad, Prussia ne national unification movement ki leadership li.
• Otto von Bismarck: Chief Minister Otto von Bismarck is process ke architect the, jinhone Prussian army aur bureaucracy ki help li.
• Wars: Seven years mein three wars – Austria, Denmark, aur France ke saath – jismein Prussian victory hui aur unification complete hua.
• Proclamation of German Empire: January 1871 mein, Prussian king, William I ko Versailles mein German Emperor proclaim kiya gaya.
• Princes of German states, army representatives, aur Prussian ministers (Bismarck included) Hall of Mirrors, Palace of Versailles mein gather hue.
• Prussian Dominance: German nation-building process ne Prussian state power ki dominance dikhayi.
• Modernization: New state ne currency, banking, legal aur judicial systems ko modernize karne par emphasis diya. Prussian measures Germany ke liye model bane.

Italy Unified:

• Background: Italy mein bhi political fragmentation ka long history tha. Italians several dynastic states aur Habsburg Empire mein scattered the.
• Mid-19th Century Italy: Seven states mein divided thi.
• Sardinia-Piedmont: Sirf yahi Italian princely house dwara ruled thi.
• North: Austrian Habsburgs ke under.
• Centre: Pope dwara ruled.
• South: Bourbon kings of Spain ke domination mein.
• Italian language mein bhi regional aur local variations the.
• Giuseppe Mazzini ka Role: 1830s mein unitary Italian Republic ke liye coherent programme banaya. Young Italy secret society banayi.
• 1831 aur 1848 mein revolutionary uprisings fail ho gaye.
• Sardinia-Piedmont ki Leadership: King Victor Emmanuel II ke under Sardinia-Piedmont ne war ke through Italian states ko unify karne ka task liya.
• Ruling elites ko laga ki unified Italy se economic development aur political dominance milegi.
• Chief Minister Cavour: Unification movement ke leader the. Na revolutionary the na democrat. French zyada acchi bolte the Italian se.
• Diplomatic Alliance: Cavour ne France ke saath tactful diplomatic alliance kiya.
• Defeat of Austria: 1859 mein Sardinia-Piedmont ne Austrian forces ko defeat kiya.
• Giuseppe Garibaldi: Large number of armed volunteers ko lead kiya.
• 1860 mein South Italy aur Kingdom of Two Sicilies mein march kiya, local peasants ka support jeeta aur Spanish rulers ko drive out kiya.
• Red Shirts: Garibaldi ke volunteers ko Red Shirts ke naam se jaana jaata tha.
• 1867 mein Papal States (Rome) par attack kiya, but French garrison ke karan fail ho gaye.
• Unification Complete: 1861 mein Victor Emmanuel II ko united Italy ka king proclaim kiya gaya.
• 1870 mein France ne Prussia ke saath war ke dauran Rome se apne troops withdraw kar liye, tab Papal States Italy se join hue.
• Public Awareness: High illiteracy rates ke karan, bahut se Italian population liberal-nationalist ideology se unaware thi. Peasants ko lagta tha 'La Talia' Victor Emmanuel ki wife hai.

Britain mein nation-state ka formation sudden upheaval ya revolution ka result nahi tha, balki ek long-drawn-out process ka result tha.

The Strange Case of Britain:

• No British Nation (pre-18th century): British Isles ke logon ki primary identities ethnic thi (English, Welsh, Scot, Irish), sabki apni cultural aur political traditions thi.
• English Influence: English nation wealth, importance, aur power mein grow karti gayi, aur usne other nations par influence extend kiya.
• English Parliament: 1688 mein monarchy se power seize ki. Yeh instrument bana jiske through England ke centre mein ek nation-state forge hui.
• Act of Union (1707): England aur Scotland ke beech, jisse 'United Kingdom of Great Britain' bana. Iska matlab tha ki England ne Scotland par apna influence impose kiya.
• British parliament English members dwara dominated thi.
• Scotland ki distinctive culture aur political institutions ko systematically suppress kiya gaya.
• Scottish Highlanders ko Gaelic language bolne ya national dress pehenne se roka gaya, aur large numbers ko forcefully homeland se nikala gaya.
• Ireland ka Fate: Similar fate. Catholics aur Protestants mein deeply divided tha.
• English ne Irish Protestants ko Catholic-majority country par dominance establish karne mein help ki.
• Catholic revolts (e.g., Wolfe Tone aur United Irishmen, 1798) ko suppress kiya gaya.
• Ireland ko 1801 mein forcefully United Kingdom mein incorporate kiya gaya.
• New 'British Nation': Dominant English culture ke propagation se forge hui.
• Symbols: British flag (Union Jack), national anthem (God Save Our Noble King), English language actively promote kiye gaye.
• Older nations is union mein subordinate partners ke roop mein survive kiye.

Visualising the Nation:

• 18th aur 19th centuries mein artists ne nation ko personify karke female figures ke roop mein portray kiya.
• Female form kisi real woman ko represent nahi karti thi, balki nation ke abstract idea ko concrete form deti thi. Yeh female figure nation ki allegory ban gayi.
• French Revolution mein Allegory: Liberty, Justice, aur Republic ko female allegory se portray kiya gaya.
• Liberty ke attributes: Red cap, broken chain.
• Justice: Blindfolded woman with weighing scales.
• Marianne (France):
• Popular Christian name, 'people's nation' ke idea ko underline karta tha.
• Characteristics Liberty aur Republic se derived: red cap, tricolour, cockade.
• Statues public squares mein erect kiye gaye to remind public of national symbol of unity.
• Marianne images coins aur stamps par mark kiye gaye.
• Germania (German Nation):
• German nation ki allegory.
• Visual representations mein oak leaves ka crown pehenti thi (German oak heroism ko signify karta hai).

Meanings of Symbols (Box 3):

• Broken chains: Being freed.
• Breastplate with eagle: Symbol of German empire – strength.
• Crown of oak leaves: Heroism.
• Sword: Readiness to fight.
• Olive branch around the sword: Willingness to make peace.
• Black, red and gold tricolour: Flag of liberal-nationalists in 1848, banned by German states ke Dukes.
• Rays of the rising sun: Beginning of a new era.

19th century ke last quarter tak, nationalism ne apna idealistic liberal-democratic sentiment kho diya aur ek narrow creed ban gaya. Nationalist groups ek dusre ke prati intolerant ho gaye aur war ke liye ready the. Major European powers ne nationalist aspirations ko apne imperialist aims ke liye manipulate kiya.

The Balkans:

• Most Serious Source of Nationalist Tension: 1871 ke baad Europe mein Balkans ka area.
• Geographical aur Ethnic Variation: Modern-day Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia aur Montenegro shamil the. Inhabitants ko broadly Slavs kehte the.
• Ottoman Empire ka Control: Balkans ka ek bada part Ottoman Empire ke control mein tha.
• Disintegration of Ottoman Empire: 19th century mein Ottoman Empire ne modernization aur internal reforms se khud ko strengthen karne ki koshish ki, but success nahi mili.
• Ek-ek karke, uski European subject nationalities ne control se break away kiya aur independence declare ki.
• Claims for Independence: Balkan peoples ne nationality par based independence ya political rights ke liye claims kiye.
• History ka use kiya to prove ki woh kabhi independent the, but foreign powers dwara subjugate kiye gaye the.
• Apne struggles ko long-lost independence ko wapas jeetne ki koshish mana.
• Area of Intense Conflict: Different Slavic nationalities apni identity aur independence define karne ke liye struggle kar rahi thi, jisse Balkan area intense conflict ka area ban gaya.
• Balkan states ek dusre se fiercely jealous the aur ek dusre ke expense par territory gain karna chahte the.
• Big Power Rivalry: Matters aur complicated ho gaye kyunki Balkans big power rivalry ka scene ban gaya.
• European powers (Russia, Germany, England, Austro-Hungary) mein trade, colonies, naval aur military might par intense rivalry thi.
• Har power Balkans par dusre powers ki hold ko counter karna aur apna control extend karna chahti thi.
• Result: Isse region mein series of wars hue aur finally First World War hua.
• Nationalism aligned with Imperialism: 1914 mein Europe ko disaster ki taraf le gaya.

Anti-Imperial Movements:

• Meanwhile, 19th century mein European powers dwara colonize kiye gaye bahut se countries ne imperial domination ka oppose karna shuru kiya.
• Yeh anti-imperial movements nationalist the, jismein sabhi ne independent nation-states banane ke liye struggle kiya.
• Collective national unity ka sense, imperialism ke saath confrontation mein forge hua.
• European ideas of nationalism ko replicate nahi kiya gaya, balki logon ne apni specific variety of nationalism develop ki.
• But, yeh idea ki societies ko 'nation-states' mein organize kiya jaana chahiye, natural aur universal accept kar liya gaya.