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7th Century Onwards: Rise of Big Landlords & Warrior Chiefs

• Background: By the 7th century, many big landlords or warrior chiefs emerged in different regions of the subcontinent.
• Samantas: Existing kings often acknowledged them as their subordinates or samantas.
• Duties of Samantas:
• Bring gifts for their kings or overlords.
• Be present at their courts.
• Provide them with military support.
• Rise to Power: As samantas gained power and wealth, they declared themselves maha-samanta (great samanta) or maha-mandaleshvara (great lord of a circle or region).
• Assertion of Independence: Sometimes, they even asserted their independence from their overlords.

Notable New Dynasties

• Rashtrakutas in Deccan:
• Initially, subordinates to the Chalukyas of Karnataka.
• Mid-8th century: Dantidurga, a Rashtrakuta chief, overthrew his Chalukya overlord.
• Ritual: Performed a ritual called Hiranya-garbha (literally, the golden womb).
• Significance of Hiranya-garbha: When performed with the help of Brahmanas, it was believed to lead to the 'rebirth' of the sacrificer as a Kshatriya, even if he was not one by birth.
• Other Examples:
• Kadamba Mayurasharman and Gurjara-Pratihara Harichandra were Brahmanas who gave up their traditional professions and took to arms, successfully establishing kingdoms in Karnataka and Rajasthan respectively.

New Kingdoms Map Overview

• North India: Gurjara-Pratiharas, Palas, Chauhans (Chahamanas).
• Deccan: Rashtrakutas.
• South India: Cholas, Pandyas, Cheras.

Tripartite Struggle

• Key Players: Gurjara-Pratiharas, Rashtrakutas, and Palas.
• Objective: Control over Kannauj, a prized city in the Ganga valley.
• Duration: This struggle lasted for centuries.
• Historians' Term: Because there were three 'parties' involved, historians often describe it as the "tripartite struggle".

Titles and Power Sharing

• Grand Titles: New kings adopted high-sounding titles like Maharaj-adhiraja (great king, overlord of kings) and Tribhuvana-chakravartin (lord of the three worlds).
• Power Sharing: Despite grand titles, they often shared power with samantas as well as with associations of peasants, traders, and Brahmanas.

Resource Collection

• Sources of Revenue: Resources were obtained from producers (peasants, cattle-keepers, artisans) who were often persuaded or compelled to surrender part of their produce.
• Rent or Tax?: These resources were often claimed as 'rent' due to a landlord's ownership of land, or as 'tax' from producers.
• Forty-Eight Types of Taxes (Chola Example):
• Vetti: Not in cash, but in the form of forced labour.
• Kadamai: Land revenue.
• Other Taxes: Taxes on thatching a house, use of a ladder to climb palm trees, a cess on succession to family property, etc.

Utilisation of Resources

• King's Establishment: To finance the king's establishment.
• Construction: For the construction of temples and forts.
• Warfare: To fight wars, which were also expected to lead to the acquisition of wealth (in the form of plunder) and access to land as well as trade routes.

Functionaries for Revenue Collection

• Recruitment: Functionaries for collecting revenue were generally recruited from influential families.
• Hereditary Positions: Positions were often hereditary.
• Influence: This was also true for the army, and in many cases, close relatives of the king held these positions.

Prashastis: Praises for Rulers

• Meaning: Prashastis are eulogies or praises, often in verse.
• Composition: Composed by Brahmanas, who were often rewarded with land grants.
• Content: They contained details that may not be literally true but tell us how rulers wanted to depict themselves.
• Depicted kings as valiant, victorious warriors.
• Example: A Pratihara prashasti found in Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, describes Nagabhata's exploits.

Land Grants: Rewards for Brahmanas

• Copper Plates: Land grants were recorded on copper plates, which were given to those who received the land.
• Conditions of Land Grants: These grants often came with specific rights and duties for the recipients.
• Right to collect taxes from cultivators, artisans, and others.
• Right to impose fines.
• Right to keep the taxes collected by judicial officers.
• Right to build brick rooms, plant trees, dig wells, etc.
• Significance: Land grants were a way for rulers to legitimize their rule, gain the support of Brahmanas, and expand agricultural production.

A 12th-Century Account: Kalhana's Rajatarangini

• Author: Kalhana.
• Work: Rajatarangini (The River of Kings).
• Subject: History of kings of Kashmir.
• Difference from Prashastis: Unlike prashastis, Kalhana was often critical about rulers and their policies, providing a more balanced perspective.
• Sources: Used a variety of sources, including inscriptions, documents, eyewitness accounts, and earlier histories.

Motives for Warfare

• Control over Resources: Kingdoms constantly fought with each other to control valuable resources and fertile regions.
• Wealth Acquisition: Warfare was a means to acquire wealth through plunder.
• Strategic Locations: Control over strategic cities and regions, like Kannauj, was a major objective.

The Tripartite Struggle Revisited

• Participants: Gurjara-Pratiharas, Rashtrakutas, and Palas.
• Target: The city of Kannauj in the Ganga valley.
• Reason: Kannauj was strategically important and a symbol of power.

Ghazni's Raids: A Case Study

• Mahmud of Ghazni (Afghanistan):
• Ruled from 997 to 1030.
• Extended control over parts of Central Asia, Iran, and the north-western part of the subcontinent.
• Annual Raids: Raided the subcontinent almost every year, targeting wealthy temple towns.
• Objective: To plunder wealth, especially from rich temples like the Somnath temple in Gujarat.
• Wealth Utilization: Used the vast wealth to build a splendid capital city at Ghazni.
• Al-Biruni's Kitab al-Hind:
• Commissioned by Mahmud: Mahmud of Ghazni commissioned a scholar named Al-Biruni to write an account of the subcontinent.
• Language: Written in Arabic.
• Content: Detailed account of Indian society, customs, religion, and sciences.
• Methodology: Al-Biruni consulted Sanskrit scholars and texts to prepare his account.
• Significance: A valuable historical source for understanding India during that period.

Other Warlords

• Chahamanas (Chauhans):
• Ruled over the region around Delhi and Ajmer.
• Attempted to expand their control to the west and east, where they were opposed by the Chalukyas of Gujarat and the Gahadavalas of western Uttar Pradesh.
• Prithviraj III (1168-1192):
• The best-known Chahamana ruler.
• Defeated Sultan Muhammad Ghori in 1191.
• Lost to Muhammad Ghori in 1192 in the Second Battle of Tarain.

Rise of the Cholas

• Origin: The Cholas were originally subordinate to the Pallava kings of Kanchipuram.
• Uraiyur: The Chola family hailed from Uraiyur.
• Vijayalaya (Mid-9th Century):
• Belonged to the ancient chiefly family of the Cholas from Uraiyur.
• Captured the Kaveri delta from the Muttaraiyar (who were subordinates to the Pallava kings).
• Built the town of Thanjavur and a temple for Goddess Nishumbhasudini there.
• Successors: Vijayalaya's successors conquered neighbouring regions and expanded the kingdom in size and power.

Expansion and Consolidation

• Rajaraja I (985-1014):
• Considered the most powerful Chola ruler.
• Expanded control over most of these areas.
• Reorganised the administration of the empire.
• Built the Brihadishvara temple at Thanjavur.
• Rajendra I (Son of Rajaraja I):
• Continued his father's policies.
• Campaigns: Led campaigns to the Ganga valley, Sri Lanka, and countries of Southeast Asia.
• Navy: Developed a powerful navy for these expeditions.

Temple Architecture: Thanjavur and Gangaikondacholapuram

• Grand Temples: The grand temples of Thanjavur and Gangaikondacholapuram, built by Rajaraja I and Rajendra I respectively, are architectural and sculptural marvels.
• Settlements around Temples: Temples became the nuclei of settlements, growing around them.
• Centres of Craft Production: Temples were not just places of worship but also centres of craft production.
• Economic Hubs: They were endowed with land by rulers and others, and the produce of this land went into maintaining temple specialists (priests, garland makers, cooks, sweepers, musicians, dancers, etc.).
• Social and Cultural Role: Temples were also social, economic, and cultural centres.

Settlement of Peasants: Ur and Nadu

• Ur: Settlements of peasants, known as ur, became prosperous with the spread of irrigation agriculture.
• Nadu: Groups of such urs formed larger units called nadu.
• Functions of Nadu:
• Performed several administrative functions, including dispensing justice and collecting taxes.
• Influence of Vellala Castes: Rich peasants of the Vellala caste exercised considerable control over the affairs of the nadu under the supervision of the central Chola government.

Titles and Honours for Rich Peasants

• Muvendavelan: A vellan or peasant serving three kings.
• Araiyar: Chief.
• Significance: These titles were given by Chola kings as markers of respect, and they entrusted important state offices to these powerful peasants.

Types of Land in Chola Inscriptions

• Velanvagai: Land of non-Brahmana peasant proprietors.
• Brahmadeya: Land gifted to Brahmanas.
• Shalabhoga: Land for the maintenance of a school.
• Devadana / Tirunamattukkani: Land gifted to temples.
• Pallichchhandam: Land donated to Jaina institutions.

Assemblies of Brahmanas: Sabha

• Brahmadeya: As a result of Brahmadeya, a large number of Brahmana settlements emerged in the Kaveri valley and other parts of South India.
• Sabha: Each Brahmadeya was looked after by an assembly or sabha of prominent Brahmana landholders.
• Efficiency: These sabhas worked very efficiently.
• Inscriptions: Their decisions were recorded in detail on stone walls of temples.
• Committees: These assemblies had separate committees for irrigation works, gardens, temples, etc.

Nagaram: Assemblies of Traders

• Nagaram: Associations of traders known as nagarams also occasionally performed administrative functions in towns.

Development of Agriculture

• Kaveri River: The river Kaveri branches into several small channels before emptying into the Bay of Bengal.
• Fertile Soil: These channels frequently overflow, depositing fertile soil on their banks.
• Water for Agriculture: The water from the channels also provides the necessary moisture for agriculture, especially for rice cultivation.
• Early Development: Agriculture had developed much earlier in other parts of Tamil Nadu, but it was only from the 5th or 6th century that this area opened up for large-scale cultivation.

Chola Innovations in Irrigation

• Forest Clearance: Large-scale clearing of forests in some regions.
• Levelling Land: Levelling of land in other areas.
• Embankments: Construction of embankments to prevent flooding.
• Canals: Building of canals to carry water to the fields.
• Wells: Digging of wells in many areas.
• Tanks: Construction of huge tanks to collect rainwater.

Importance of Planning and Labour

• Organisation: All these activities required careful planning.
• Labour: Required labour as well as resources.
• Decision-making: Rulers, along with village people, actively participated in the planning and maintenance of irrigation works.
• Prosperity: The development of irrigation led to increased agricultural productivity and prosperity, which in turn supported the large Chola empire and its grand temples.

Temples as Nuclei of Settlements

• Beyond Worship: Chola temples were not just places of worship but also economic, social, and cultural centres.
• Settlements: Settlements grew around temples, forming nuclei of urbanisation.
• Craft Production: Temples were centres of craft production.
• Maintenance: Land grants from rulers and others maintained temple specialists (priests, garland makers, cooks, sweepers, musicians, dancers, etc.).
• Market: The produce of the land and donations also supported a market around the temple, facilitating trade and commerce.

Chola Bronze Sculptures

• World Renowned: Chola bronze images are considered amongst the finest in the world.
• Method: Most images were of deities, but some were also made of devotees.
• Lost-Wax Technique: The method used for making these sculptures was the lost-wax technique.

1. An image is first made in wax.
2. This is covered with clay and allowed to dry.
3. The clay mould is heated, and a tiny hole is made in the mould to drain out the molten wax.
4. Molten metal is poured into the hollow clay mould.
5. Once the metal cools and solidifies, the clay mould is carefully broken away.
6. The image is then cleaned and polished.

Example: Nataraja Sculpture

• Iconic: The Nataraja sculpture, depicting Lord Shiva as the cosmic dancer, is a prime example of Chola bronze art.
• Symbolism: Represents the cycle of creation and destruction, a key aspect of Hindu philosophy.